Perceptions of peers’ drinking are among the strongest predictors of college students’ future alcohol consumption, prompting the development of Personalized Normative Feedback (PNF) interventions that provide individualized reports comparing students’ perceptions of peer drinking to actual behaviors. While PNF interventions consistently reduce misperceived drinking norms and alcohol consumption, effect sizes remain modest due to issues such as students questioning data credibility, poor engagement, and defensive reactions among heavy drinkers—problems reflecting traditional formats’ lack of sophisticated digital features found in popular social media and gaming applications. To address these limitations, the present study evaluates a gamified PNF approach delivered through CampusGandr, a smartphone-based social guessing game designed to enhance engagement through dynamic digital elements.
The study was conducted with 1,143 college students (ages 18–20) from universities in Texas and California. Participants were randomly assigned to receive alcohol-related feedback at 0 (no alcohol feedback, NAF), 3 (less alcohol feedback, LAF), or 6 weeks (more alcohol feedback, MAF) as part of a 16-week smartphone-based social guessing game called CampusGandr. Data were collected at baseline and one-month follow-up via the online survey platform Qualtrics. Typical weekly alcohol consumption was measured using the Daily Drinking Questionnaire (DDQ), and perceived drinking norms were assessed using the Drinking Norms Rating Form (DNRF). For data analysis, a negative binomial regression model was used to examine perceived drinking norms, and a hurdle negative binomial regression model was applied to analyze weekly alcohol consumption. In the hurdle model, drinking status (drinking vs. non-drinking) was analyzed using logistic regression, while alcohol consumption among drinkers was analyzed using truncated negative binomial regression.
The study found no significant baseline differences between the three randomized conditions (NFA, LAF, MAF) on drinking-related outcomes. Intent-to-treat analyses revealed no significant effects of either feedback condition compared to control on follow-up perceived drinking norms or weekly drinking status. Exploratory dose-response analyses examining the actual number of alcohol feedback viewed showed that increased feedback exposure was linearly associated with lower perceived drinking norms, with significant effects occurring when participants viewed 0-3 feedback but no additional benefit beyond 3 feedback. For drinking probability, a significant quadratic relationship emerged where viewing 0-3 alcohol feedback decreased the likelihood of any drinking (with significant negative slopes from 0-2 feedback), but this pattern reversed with 4-6 feedback viewed, showing increased drinking probability with significant positive slopes. No significant associations were found between feedback exposure and the quantity of drinks consumed among participants who reported drinking.
Takeaway: The effect of alcohol feedback is contingent upon delivery frequency, with moderate levels (0-3) effectively reducing drinking probability and perceived norms, while excessive exposure may yield adverse outcomes.